Gelatin: Properties and Multifunctional Ingredient in Modern Food Science

Gelatin is a highly versatile and widely utilized ingredient in the food industry, prized for its unique characteristics and multifunctionality. Derived from collagen found in the connective tissues of animals, such as skin, bones, and cartilage, gelatin is obtained through partial hydrolysis. This process transforms collagen into a substance that dissolves in hot water and forms a gel upon cooling, making it a cornerstone of many culinary and industrial applications.

The hallmark of gelatin is its ability to form gels. This property is pivotal in creating popular desserts like jelly, marshmallows, and gummy candies. Additionally, gelatin is essential in savory applications such as aspic, a meat or vegetable-based jelly. The gel-forming capability of gelatin depends on factors like concentration, temperature, and pH, enabling precise manipulation of texture and consistency in food products. Recent advancements in the food industry have focused on improving gelatin’s functionality by modifying these variables to meet specific consumer demands, such as vegan-friendly alternatives or reduced sugar content.

Beyond its gelling ability, gelatin serves as a stabilizer, thickener, and emulsifier in numerous products. It enhances the texture and mouthfeel of yogurt, ice cream, and sauces, contributing to their overall appeal. In beverages like fruit juices and wine, gelatin aids in clarifying and stabilizing the liquid by binding with impurities, a process known as fining. Modern techniques now allow for more sustainable sourcing and innovative applications of gelatin, such as using it in plant-based beverages or low-alcohol wines.

Gelatin’s nutritional value further boosts its appeal. It is a rich source of essential amino acids, especially glycine and proline, which play critical roles in maintaining healthy skin, joints, and connective tissues. These attributes make gelatin a popular component in dietary supplements and functional foods designed to promote overall wellness. Emerging research highlights gelatin’s potential in aiding gut health and supporting recovery from exercise-induced muscle damage, aligning with growing consumer interest in health-conscious eating.

In conclusion, gelatin remains an indispensable ingredient in the food industry due to its unique gelling, stabilizing, and thickening properties. Coupled with its nutritional benefits and adaptability to modern trends, gelatin continues to be a cornerstone of innovation and functionality in food science.
Gelatin: Properties and Multifunctional Ingredient in Modern Food Science

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The Vital Role of Chlorophyll in Sustaining Life

Chlorophyll, the green pigment found predominantly in plant chloroplasts, is indispensable for photosynthesis—the process that converts light energy into chemical energy. This pigment not only gives plants their characteristic green color but also facilitates the production of energy-rich compounds that sustain life on Earth.

Chlorophyll absorbs light most efficiently in the blue and red wavelengths, while reflecting green, which explains the green hue of foliage. The absorbed light energy drives the photosynthetic process, where carbon dioxide and water are converted into glucose and oxygen. This glucose is a critical energy source for plants, supporting cellular activities, growth, and development. The oxygen released as a byproduct replenishes Earth's atmosphere, making it breathable for most life forms. In fact, over 50% of the world’s oxygen is produced by phytoplankton—tiny chlorophyll-containing organisms in the oceans—highlighting the global significance of this pigment.

Beyond energy production, chlorophyll plays a crucial protective role. Plants are constantly exposed to potentially harmful ultraviolet (UV) radiation. Chlorophyll helps mitigate this risk by absorbing and dissipating excess light energy, preventing oxidative stress and damage to cellular components such as DNA and proteins. This protective mechanism is vital for maintaining plant health and productivity, especially under intense sunlight or in environments with high UV exposure.

Moreover, chlorophyll is integral to the regulation of plant growth and development. It influences various physiological processes, including seed germination, leaf expansion, flowering, and fruiting. Studies also suggest that chlorophyll levels can serve as indicators of plant health and nutrient status, aiding farmers and scientists in monitoring crop conditions.

Recent advancements in biotechnology have explored the potential of chlorophyll beyond its natural role. For instance, synthetic chlorophyll derivatives are being developed for use in solar energy conversion and as antioxidants in food and medicine.

In summary, chlorophyll is more than just a pigment; it is a linchpin in the Earth's life-support system. By driving photosynthesis, protecting plants from UV damage, and regulating growth, it sustains ecosystems and ensures the survival of countless species, including humans.
The Vital Role of Chlorophyll in Sustaining Life

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Sterols: Key Lipids for Cell Membrane Function and Health

Sterols are a class of lipids that are essential for various biological functions in living organisms. Structurally, sterols are characterized by a hydroxyl group (-OH) attached to the carbon atom of the A ring, making them a type of steroid. This unique structure allows sterols to insert themselves into cell membranes, where they play a crucial role in maintaining membrane structure and fluidity. Their presence helps to modulate membrane permeability and flexibility, ensuring that cells can function properly in diverse environments.

One of the most well-known sterols is cholesterol, which is vital for animal cell membranes. Cholesterol contributes to membrane stability by preventing the fatty acid chains of phospholipids from packing too closely together, thus maintaining fluidity, especially in low-temperature conditions. Additionally, cholesterol serves as a precursor for the synthesis of steroid hormones, bile acids, and vitamin D, highlighting its importance in various physiological processes. In plants, sterols such as campesterol, sitosterol, and stigmasterol are collectively known as phytosterols. These compounds are crucial for the structural integrity of plant cell membranes and have been shown to reduce cholesterol absorption in humans, thereby helping to lower blood cholesterol levels, which can reduce the risk of heart disease.

Sterols also play significant roles in cellular signaling and metabolism. For instance, corticosteroids like cortisol are involved in regulating metabolism, immune responses, and stress responses in animals. In fungi, sterols such as ergosterol are critical for maintaining cell membrane function and integrity, as they are essential for cell growth and reproduction.

Beyond their biological importance, sterols have diverse applications in various industries. In the food industry, phytosterols are added to products like margarine and yogurt to help reduce cholesterol levels in consumers, promoting heart health. In pharmaceuticals, sterols are used in the formulation of certain medications and supplements, aiding in drug delivery and effectiveness.

Overall, sterols are indispensable molecules that contribute to the structural and functional diversity of cell membranes while also having important applications in health and industry. Their roles in maintaining membrane integrity, facilitating signaling pathways, and providing health benefits underscore their vital significance in both biological systems and commercial products.
Sterols: Key Lipids for Cell Membrane Function and Health

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Unlocking the Power of Vitamin K: From Clotting to Bone Health and Beyond

Vitamin K, a fat-soluble nutrient, is indispensable for the synthesis of prothrombin, a crucial compound facilitating blood clotting. While its primary role is in clotting, it also serves other vital functions, notably bone health. Vitamin K is instrumental in retaining calcium in bones and ensuring its proper distribution.

This essential vitamin exists in three distinct forms. Firstly, there's vitamin K1, or phylloquinone, predominantly found in plant-based foods. Secondly, there's vitamin K2, also known as menaquinone, synthesized by beneficial gut bacteria. Lastly, there's vitamin K3, or menadione, an artificial form primarily utilized in the liver to produce clotting factors.

Sources of vitamin K vary, with cabbage, spinach, cauliflower, and liver being notable examples. However, moderate amounts can also be found in various vegetables and cereals.

Recent research underscores the multifaceted role of vitamin K, emphasizing its significance beyond clotting mechanisms. Studies suggest its involvement in cardiovascular health, cognitive function, and even potential cancer prevention. Furthermore, ongoing investigations explore its impact on bone density and fracture risk reduction, particularly among aging populations.

Incorporating ample vitamin K through a balanced diet remains imperative for overall health and well-being. As dietary habits evolve, understanding the diverse forms and sources of this vital nutrient ensures optimal utilization and benefits for individuals of all ages.
Unlocking the Power of Vitamin K: From Clotting to Bone Health and Beyond

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Vitamin E: A Crucial Antioxidant for Cellular Protection and Immune Health

Vitamin E plays a critical role in reducing the oxidation of lipid membranes and unsaturated fatty acids, thereby preventing the breakdown of other nutrients by oxygen. Some scientists liken the function of vitamin E on the cell membrane to lightning rods nullifying the damage from lightning strikes, highlighting its protective capabilities. This antioxidant role of vitamin E is complemented and enhanced by other antioxidants, including vitamin C, beta-carotene, glutathione (L-cysteine), coenzyme Q10, and the mineral selenium. These antioxidants work synergistically in a recycling process that requires the presence of beta-carotene, vitamin C, flavonoids, and coenzyme Q10 to effectively regenerate vitamin E, ensuring sustained protection against oxidative stress.

Observational studies suggest that a high intake of antioxidants, including vitamin E, may lower the risk of chronic diseases, particularly heart disease. Different forms of vitamin E, such as tocotrienols, have immuno-regulatory functions that contribute to health beyond the well-known alpha-tocopherol. Alpha-tocopherol is the most prevalent form of vitamin E in plasma and tissues and has been extensively studied for its positive impact on immune function, largely because it is the primary component in most vitamin E supplements. This extensive research underlines the importance of alpha-tocopherol in maintaining immune health and protecting against oxidative damage.
Vitamin E: A Crucial Antioxidant for Cellular Protection and Immune Health

Mango Slices: High with Vitamin E

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Vitamin D: Multifaceted Roles

Vitamin D, often perceived as a simple supplement, is actually a potent fat-soluble steroid hormone precursor crucial for maintaining the delicate balance of calcium levels in the bloodstream. Its functions extend well beyond mere calcium regulation, playing a vital role in orchestrating a variety of physiological processes essential for overall health.

One of the primary mechanisms through which vitamin D exerts its effects is by enhancing calcium absorption from dietary sources while simultaneously reducing urinary calcium loss through kidney reabsorption. This concerted effort ensures the retention of calcium within the body, thereby strengthening bone density and resilience, thus guarding against conditions such as osteoporosis and fractures.

However, the impact of vitamin D reaches far beyond skeletal health. Its involvement in immune system modulation and blood cell formation underscores its significance in maintaining optimal physiological function. Vitamin D also facilitates cellular differentiation, a process crucial for reducing the risk of cancer development. Research suggests a connection between vitamin D levels and the occurrence of various diseases, including tuberculosis, gum inflammation, multiple sclerosis, autoimmune arthritis, and juvenile diabetes.

Additionally, emerging evidence emphasizes the pivotal role of vitamin D in cancer prevention. It regulates the growth of both normal and malignant cells, showing promise as a protective agent against cancers of the colon, prostate, pancreas, and breast. Furthermore, vitamin D contributes to insulin regulation by stimulating insulin production in pancreatic cells, thereby aiding in maintaining appropriate blood insulin levels.

Despite being categorized as a vitamin, vitamin D is primarily synthesized within the body upon exposure of the skin to ultraviolet B radiation from sunlight. This distinctive feature sets it apart from other vitamins typically obtained solely through dietary sources. Following synthesis, vitamin D undergoes activation in the liver and kidneys, transforming into its active form, poised to regulate a multitude of essential physiological processes.

In conclusion, vitamin D surpasses its conventional designation as a mere nutrient, emerging as a crucial regulator of diverse physiological functions. From fortifying bone health to modulating immune responses and influencing cancer risk, its multifaceted roles underscore its indispensability for overall well-being. Thus, ensuring sufficient vitamin D levels through sunlight exposure and dietary supplementation is imperative for maintaining optimal health and mitigating various diseases.
Vitamin D: Multifaceted Roles

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Gelling Agents in Food

Gelling agents function as additions to food, enhancing the uniformity, feel, and framework of soft, jelly-like sweets. Characterizing a food gel as a moisture-rich, three-dimensional polymeric network capable of withstanding pressure and preserving a distinct structural form, these agents are vital in creating loosely bonded internal structures when dissolved in a liquid phase, resulting in colloidal mixtures. Belonging to a varied category of polymers, they can be either organic hydrocolloids or hydrophilic inorganic substances, encompassing long-chain polysaccharides and proteins known for their capacity to form thick dispersions or gels in water.

Gellification is the process where polymer chains connect or link, giving rise to a three-dimensional network that captures water, ultimately forming a firm structure. In semi-solid forms, gelling agents are typically utilized at concentrations ranging from 0.5% to 10%. Examples of these agents include tragacanth, pectin, starch, carbomer, sodium alginate, gelatin, cellulose derivatives, polyvinyl alcohol, and clays. While gelatin was the initial gelling agent discovered, agar, with superior material qualities, swiftly followed suit.

Beyond their gelling role, these agents also serve as stabilizers and thickeners, supplying thickness without undue rigidity. Certain gelling agents possess the ability to shift between liquid and gel states based on temperature, adding to their attractiveness. An optimal solidifier is recognized for being colorless, odorless, and adept at retaining moisture.
Gelling Agents in Food

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Packaging Perception and Functions

Despite its crucial role in ensuring the delivery of goods in optimal condition, packaging is often viewed as an unavoidable inconvenience or an unnecessary expense. Many consumers perceive it as somewhat superfluous or, at its worst, a significant burden on resources and a threat to the environment.

These perspectives stem from a lack of awareness or a failure to fully consider the various functions that packaging serves. When consumers encounter a package, its primary tasks are often already completed, making concerns about excessive packaging somewhat understandable.

Packaging, defined as a socio-scientific discipline operating in society, ensures the delivery of goods to end consumers in the best condition for their intended use. The Packaging Institute International characterizes packaging as the enclosure of products in various forms (pouches, bags, boxes, cups, trays, cans, tubes, bottles) to fulfill functions such as containment, protection, preservation, communication, utility, and performance.

A device or container qualifies as a package if it fulfills one or more of these functions. Other definitions of packaging encompass a coordinated system for preparing goods for transport, distribution, storage, and retailing—a means of ensuring safe and cost-effective delivery to the end consumer. It is a techno-commercial function aimed at optimizing delivery costs while maximizing sales.

It is crucial to differentiate between the terms "package," "packaging," and "packing." The package refers to the physical entity containing the product, while packaging involves both the enclosure of products and a discipline. The verb "packing" is the action of enclosing an individual item or several items in a package or container.
Packaging Perception and Functions

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Riboflavin: Essential B-Vitamin Functions

Riboflavin, recognized as vitamin B-2, is an essential nutrient integral to a balanced diet and a member of the group of eight B-family vitamins.

Vitamin B2 is classified as a water-soluble vitamin with the ability to dissolve readily in water. Vitamins are divided into the categories of water soluble or fat soluble.

Riboflavin assumes a significant role in fostering bodily growth, supporting the generation of red blood cells, and facilitating the liberation of energy from proteins.

The creation of two pivotal coenzymes, flavin mononucleotide (FMN) and flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD), heavily depends on riboflavin. Vitamin B-2 is a key factor in aiding the breakdown of the three primary macronutrients – protein, carbohydrate, and fat within the human body. Through its presence as FAD, riboflavin contributes to the progression of the electron transport chain, a series of chemical reactions that generate usable energy for cells, thereby enabling the breakdown of fats and carbohydrates into fuel.

Maintaining an adequate riboflavin intake is essential for effectively digesting and utilizing macronutrients such as carbohydrates, fats, and proteins to sustain bodily functions. Given the efficiency of a well-functioning digestive system in absorbing nutrients, obtaining a satisfactory amount of riboflavin from dietary sources is imperative.

Riboflavin also plays a role in the conversion of tryptophan to niacin, which activates vitamin B6. This conversion process requires FMN to transform vitamin B6 into the coenzyme pyridoxal 5'-phosphate, pivotal for normal brain development and the well-being of the nervous and immune systems.

Iron metabolism relies on riboflavin (as FAD or FMN). Additionally, riboflavin plays a crucial role in folate and related one-carbon metabolism, where FAD functions as a cofactor for methylenetetrahydrofolate reductase (MTHFR), a key enzyme in folate metabolism.

Furthermore, riboflavin acts as an antioxidant by stimulating antioxidant enzymes. Antioxidants play a crucial role in shielding body cells from damage initiated by reactive oxygen species (ROS), harmful chemicals capable of inducing damage.
Riboflavin: Essential B-Vitamin Functions

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Food Additives Overview

Food additives are substances added to food with the purpose of preserving them or improving their color, flavor, or texture. These additives include food colorings like tartrazine or cochineal, flavor enhancers like MSG, and various preservatives.

Throughout history, certain food additives have been used for preserving foods, such as salt in meats like bacon or dried fish, sugar in marmalade, or sulfur dioxide in wine.

The main objective of using additives is to ensure that processed food remains safe and maintains its quality during its entire journey from factories or industrial kitchens, through transportation to warehouses and shops, and finally reaching consumers.

Food additives serve five primary functions:

~Maintaining product consistency
~Improving or preserving nutritional value
~Ensuring palatability and wholesomeness
~Providing leavening or controlling acidity/alkalinity
~Enhancing flavor or achieving desired color

These additives are classified into various functional classes, which encompass acidity regulators, antioxidants, colors, emulsifiers, preservatives, stabilizers, sweeteners, and thickeners.

An interesting fact is that many of the food additives used in the food industry already exist naturally in foods that people consume daily. For example, MSG occurs naturally in parmesan cheese, sardines, and tomatoes in significantly higher quantities than the MSG used as a food additive.

Food additives can generally be grouped into four categories: nutritional additives, processing agents, preservatives, and sensory agents.

It is important to note that allergic reactions are most commonly triggered by additives used to enhance a food's marketable qualities, such as its color. Some of these hypersensitive reactions include digestive disorders, nervous disorders, respiratory problems, and skin issues.
Food Additives Overview

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Anticaking agent

Anticaking agent is the food additive that prevents agglomeration in certain solids, permitting a free-flowing condition and to prevent the formation of lumps and for easing packaging, transport, and consumption. Anticaking agent reduces the tendency of components of food to adhere to one another.

The flowability is improved and caking is inhibited by acting as surface physical barriers between particles and on its surface. Anticaking compounds have been demonstrated to combat humidity, function as a vapor barrier, reduce surface resistance, and prevent crystal lattice shape development or alteration.

Anticaking agents keep powders or granulated materials such as milk powder, powdered sugar, tea and coffee powders used in vending machines, table salt etc. They also are used in nonfood applications, such as cosmetics, detergents, pharmaceuticals, and tobacco.

Low molecular weight sugars are known to cause caking during storage. These sugars are very hygroscopic and tend to be sticky. They also create high agglomerates upon exposure to moisture.

Anticaking agents function either by adsorbing excess moisture, or by coating particles and making them water repellent. Some anticaking agents are soluble in water; others are soluble in alcohols or other organic solvents.

Caking is a phenomenon in which lump formation in a powdered product occurs, usually after exposure to high temperature and humidity.it can occur in silos, big bags and even in small packages. In addition to lump formation and flowability reduction, caking may also lead to poor rehydration and dispersibility of products, increase in lipid oxidation, loss of flavor and crispiness, deterioration of organoleptic quality and shelf life, and hence reduction of process efficiency and yield.

Most anticaking agents are made from synthetic substances such as silicon dioxide, magnesium carbonate and iron ammonium citrate. Calcium silicate, commonly added to table salt, absorbs both oil and water. Natural anticaking agents include magnesium silicate and corn starch.

Common anti-caking agents such as calcium stearate, silicon dioxide, calcium phosphate, calcium silicate, and corn starch are effective at low concentrations and are generally used in concentrations up to 3%, as their legal allowable concentration is restricted to a limited level, which in practice is generally within 1% or less
Anticaking agent

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Functions of copper in the body

Copper is an essential trace element present in all body tissues. A small amount is needed for the body to function, but the body cannot make its own copper. Most copper in the body is found in the liver, brain, heart, kidneys, and skeletal muscle.

An average adult human ingests about 1 mg of copper per day in the diet; about half of which is absorbed. It plays a role in making red blood cells and maintaining nerve cells, and the healthy bones. Copper also aids in iron absorption.

Human body uses copper to carry out many important functions, including making energy, connective tissues, and blood vessels. Copper also helps maintain the immune systems, and activates genes. Human body also needs copper for brain development.

The part copper plays in immune system maintenance and activation, it helps to ensure a healthy supply of white blood cells, many of which are phagocytes that protect the body by engulfing bacteria, foreign particles and dying cells.

As a cofactor for apo-copper-zinc superoxide dismutase (apoCuZnSOD), copper protects against free-radical damage to proteins, membrane lipids, and nucleic acids in a wide range of cells and organs.

The richest dietary copper sources include shellfish, seeds and nuts, organ meats, wheat-bran cereals, whole-grain products, and chocolate.
Functions of copper in the body

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Functions and benefits of food additive guar gum

Guar gum is the ground endosperm derived from the seeds of the drought tolerant plant Cyamopsis tetragonoloba, a member of Leguminosae family.

Commercial food-grade guar gum is reported to contain usually about 80% guaran, 5–6% crude protein, 8–15% moisture, 2.5% crude fiber, 0.5–0.8% ash, and small amounts of lipids composed mainly of free and esterified plant fatty acids.

Guar gum is insoluble in organic solvents. The gum is soluble in cold water without heating to form a highly viscous so1ution. Guar gum solutions have buffering capacity and are very stable in the pH 4.0-10.5 range.

Guar gum is practically undigested, not absorbed intact, but significantly fermented by enteric bacteria in humans.

It is largely used in the form of guar gum powder as an additive in food, pharmaceuticals, paper, textile, explosive, oil well drilling and cosmetics industry. Industrial applications of guar gum are possible because of its ability to form hydrogen bonding with water molecule. Thus, it is chiefly used as thickener and stabilizer.

For example: Guar gum is added to various dairy products, such as ice cream (for preventing ice crystal growth and for textural improvement), milk shakes (for preventing serum separation and adding viscosity and shear resistance) and yogurt (for improved texture and mouthfeel and for preventing syneresis).

It is also beneficial in the control of many health problems like diabetes, bowel movements, heart disease and colon cancer.

Guar is used as: thicker, stabilizer, emulsifier, formulation aid, viscosity builder, firming agent.
Functions and benefits of food additive guar gum

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Overview of meat binders

Food binders are food additives that are added to the food products in order to improves the texture by binding or thickening or the ingredients together.

Based on the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) definition, binders are used to thicken or to improve texture, consistency and sensory scores of meats. Stabilizers are food additives that contribute an optimal finished meat system and provide value-added qualities to meat system applications.

During manufacturing of sausages, binders are used to improve the bind of meat and fat, improving fat and moisture retention. Binders are often used when hand mixing sausage to improve bind characteristics and to help mitigate off-flavors from some wild game.

It also can improve finished product stability, provide consistent texture and viscosity, and make food products firmer.

From pre-historic times, food binders have been used successfully in traditional food system to increase viscosity, prevent water separation and improve body texture and flavor properties sought after in modern food stabilizers.

Currently, there are many products available in the supermarket, which are made by binding comminuted meat products along with spices, seasonings, and stabilizer in to one cohesive product.

Various binders are available to meat processors. Some binders are proteins, such as soy protein isolate, pea protein, wheat protein, milk casein ate, gelatin, and egg protein.

Proteins derived from a variety of plant and animal resources have potential value as binders in restructured meat products. Some binders are derived from enzymes, such as transglutaminase and beef fibrin.

Milk proteins are also used in meat products throughout the world. Nonfat dry milk, sodium caseinate, and whey protein concentrates are used as emulsifiers and water binders. Sodium caseinates are used for ham production in Mexico, helping to retain moisture.

The binding substance carrageenan can provide significant volume increase as it is highly water absorbent. Its positive role is mainly in the manufacture of coarse products such as burgers or coarse skinless sausage products and in cooked hams.
Overview of meat binders

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Docosahexaenoic acid (DHA)

Docosahexaenoic acid (C22: 6n-3, DHA) is a long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acid enriched in phospholipids of marine origin fundamental for the formation and function of the nervous system, particularly the brain and the retina of humans. The common name for DHA, which is rarely used, is cervonic acid.

DHA is particularly important in brain development as there is a “DHA accretion spurt” during the last gestational period.

DHA is almost exclusively present in significant amount in diverse seafood (fish, shellfish, micro- and macroalgae and even some mammals). It is evident that there is at least a 10 fold range in content of DHA per portion (i.e. per serving) of seafood, with fatty fish able to provide as much as 1-1.75 g of DHA per portion. Examples of fatty fish are mackerel, salmon, trout, herring, tuna and sardines.

DHA is the most abundant n-3 LCPUFA (long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids) in the central and peripheral nervous system, representing the major proportion of PUFAs in brain and retina. This fatty acid is present in large amounts in phospholipids of brain gray matter. DHA takes an important role in neurogenesis and synaptogenesis, particularly in fetal development and during the first two years of life.

The DHA found in the CNS is not produced de novo in mammals. Instead, it must be obtained from the diet or synthesized from the precursor fatty acid, alpha-linolenic acid (ALA, 18:3 n-3). ALA is the only omega-3 fatty acid that is defined as a dietary essential nutrient. It is synthesized in plants and in many lower organisms and is found in the human diet mainly as a component of green leaves, some nuts, seeds and vegetable oils, and foods made from or containing those ingredients.
Docosahexaenoic acid (DHA)

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Functions of dietary fats

In 1929, George and Mildred Burr introduced the concept of essential fats: that fat might be necessary for the proper growth and development of animals and possibly humans.

Dietary fat includes all the lipids in plant and animal tissues that are eaten as food. The most common fats (solid) or oils (liquid) are glycerolipids, which are essentially composed of triacylglycerols.

The triacylglycerols are accompanied by minor amounts of phospholipids, monoacylglycerols, diacylglycerols and sterols/sterol esters.

Dietary fat has six important functions:
*As a source of energy
*For cell structure and membrane functions
*For metabolism
*As a source of essential fatty acids for cell structures and prostaglandin synthesis
*As a vehicle for oil-soluble vitamins
*For control of blood lipids

In addition, fat contributes to the palatability of food and is important in cooking and food processing.

The basic units of fats are fatty acids and glycerol. The most common dietary fatty acids have been subdivided into three group according to the degree of unsaturation;
*Saturated fatty acids (SFA) have no double bonds,
*Monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFA) have one double bond
*Polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) have two or more double bonds.

Fatty acids are carboxylic acids carboxylic acids with mostly long hydrocarbon unbranched aliphatic (non-aromatic) chains ranging from 4 to 36 carbons with hydrogens attached. Carboxylic acids are organic acids characterized by the presence of a carboxyl group, which has the formula C(=O)OH, usually written -COOH or -CO2H.

The most common saturated fatty acid in animals, plants and microorganisms is palmitic acid (16:0). Stearic acid (18:0) is a major fatty acid in animals and some fungi, and a minor component in most plants.

Glycerol is a water-soluble compound that can bind up to three fatty acids. When one fatty acid is attached to a glycerol the compound is called a monoglyceride. When two fatty acids are attached to a glycerol the compound is called a diglyceride.
Functions of dietary fats

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Roles of sugar in food system

Sucrose, glucose and fructose are the most common sweeteners in nature. Glucose is always less sweet than sucrose, whereas the sweetness of fructose is highly dependent on temperature.

Sugar, which refers usually to sucrose, is natural and nontoxic, sweet testing, water soluble crystalline carbohydrates, and every 1 gram of sugar provide body 4K.calories. The main source for sugar is the beet sugar or cane sugar; also there are several sources such as honey, corn syrup, fruits, and vegetables….etc. Sucrose provides a sweetness flavour profile which is consistently liked by consumers at an economical cost.

The relatively high solubility of sucrose is an important parameter for its bulking effect in many foods and beverages. The dissolved sugar increases the viscosity of water-based solutions or mixtures, resulting in enhanced mouthfeel. Dissolved sugar lowers the freezing point of ice cream by preventing the water molecules from combining to form ice crystals, which slows down the freezing process.

By absorbing free water and increasing osmotic pressure, sugar reduces water activity in a food system (e.g. jam), resulting in reduced microbial and mold growth as well as extending the storage life of food. Also sugar can preserve fruits, either in syrup with fruit such as apples, pears.

Crystallization of sugars is desirable in products such as fondant, dragees, fudge etc., but not in many other products like jam and jellies. Crystallization occurs when the solubility limit of the sugar, typically sucrose or glucose, has been exceeded and a supersaturated environment has been created.

Sugar plays an important and single role in contributing to the flavor of food by interacting with other components to enhance or lessen certain flavors. By adding a small amount of sugar to cooked vegetables and meat enhance the food’s natural flavors, without making them taste sweet.

Texture is an expression of the sensation in the mouth. Sugar affects this by providing volume and consistency in many products such as bread, jam and beverages.In bread, sugar affects the volume of dough by speeding up the fermentation process. This gives the bread a more porous structure and softer crumb.
Roles of sugar in food system

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Leavening agent

Leavening means production or incorporation of gases in a baked product to increase volume and to produce shape, and texture. Leavening results in baked products with a larger volume with an open, porous texture. The three major leavening gases are air, steam, and carbon dioxide gas. Other leavening agents include ethanol and ammonia gas.

Leavening agent produce a gas which expands during baking, leaving small holes in the baked product resulting into lightens and softens the finished product.

The gases are distributed as small bubbles in batters and doughs, and the fineness of their dispersion is responsible for the grain of the baked products.

Leavened baked goods: are lighter in density and higher in volume than batter/dough.

Leavening agents help in aerating the batter by releasing carbon dioxide. Carbon dioxide (CO2) is generated from the reaction of an acid with a base in the presence of heat and moisture. Although water vapor is important in leavening pastry, popovers, and cream puffs, it may be assisted by air, especially in pastry.

There are many different chemical leavening agents available to the baker. These include baking soda (sodium bicarbonate), ammonium bicarbonate, potassium bicarbonate, baking powder (baking soda, calcium phosphate and sodium aluminum sulfate) and leavening acids.
Leavening agent

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Vitamin D for normal bone

Vitamin D comes from two sources in humans; it could either be synthesized in form of vitamin D3 (cholecalciferol) under the influence of solar UV-B radiation in the epidermis, or be absorbed from the diet or from supplements and food additives, which in some countries may contain vitamin D2 (ergocalciferol).

This vitamin is necessary for normal tooth and bone formation. Vitamin D contributes to bone health by regulating calcium absorption. Vitamin D is crucial for maximizing gut absorption of calcium via vitamin D dependent Ca receptors. It is estimated that adequate vitamin D status increases Ca absorption to 30–40% of intake compared with only 10–15% absorption without adequate vitamin D.

Adequate vitamin D is necessary for absorption of calcium. Vitamin D is made in the skin after exposure to sunlight. Estimates include 5-16 minutes of sun exposure 3 times a week on the face, hands, and arms will meet vitamin D needs.

The recommended adequate intake (AI) of vitamin D for children and adults up to 50 years is 200 IU, whereas the recommended AI for adults 51–70 years and 71+ years is 400 IU and 600 IU, respectively.
Vitamin D for normal bone

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Kidney: Processing of waste products of protein

The kidneys are a pair of vital organs that perform many functions to keep the blood clean and chemically balanced which lets the body function.

They are located near the middle of the back, just below the rib cage, one on each side of the spine. Every day, a person’s kidneys process about 200 quarts of blood to sift out about 2 quarts of waste products and extra water. The two kidneys have a very extensive blood supply and the whole blood supply passes through the kidneys every 5 minutes, ensuring that waste materials do not build up.

The wastes and extra water become urine, which flows to the bladder through tubes called ureters. The bladder stores urine until releasing it through urination.

Kidneys are the only organs that can process the waste products of protein metabolism for elimination in the urine. An excess of dietary protein over time can overwhelm the kidneys and cause permanent damage.

Nitrogen is an essential element present in all amino acids; it is derived from dietary protein intake, is necessary for protein synthesis and maintenance of muscle mass, and is excreted by the kidneys. Under steady-state conditions, renal nitrogen excretion equals nitrogen intake. Renal nitrogen excretion consists almost completely of urea and ammonia. Kidney:
Processing of waste products of protein

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